An Introduction To Solar Power Cells

By Dan Avella

Solar energy is often seen as the "energy of the future." Solar panels, the devices used to convert power from the sun to electricity, are becoming more and more efficient. Today's panels can now be tied to the power grid, or they can be "off grid" with the help of battery or wind turbine power. Solar power cells are the key to this electricity generation.

These solar cells make up solar panels. Like a checkerboard, these cells are aligned, and together they produce energy. They are also called "modules, " which are cells that together form one item. Electricity is created from cells, and they are becoming ever more efficient at creating it.

These "building blocks" of solar power are all photovoltaic cells. This means that they use semiconductors to create electricity. Semiconductors absorb the light that falls on the cells as energy. The energy frees electrons. This electron movement creates a current, which can be drawn out of the cells by using metal as a conductor.

Not all cells are the same. However, the most common cell is made out of silicon.

The blue panels that are most familiar to us are made up of polysilicon cells. Being thick, they absorb more energy than other types of cells. The main problem is that they are brittle and cannot be shaped in different ways. This means that they may not be perfect for every use.

Thin film solar panels are flexible, unlike polysilicon cells. However, they do not absorb as much energy because they are so thin. If layers of cells are placed together they can absorb more light.

Solar energy is not perfect. Because it needs sunlight, it may be less effective in places that do not always have sunlight available. However, it is eco-friendly, and is a very efficient version of alternative energy. - 32387

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Small Wind Generators You Build Yourself

By Richard Hardy

As our society matures and we begin to understand and appreciate that everything we do will have an impact on our environment, we are starting to look for better ways of suppling our energy needs. Using wind turbines might just be one of those alternative sources of energy. Harnessing the power of the wind is nothing new, and now both countries around the world and the typical homeowner can produce electricity using the wind and household wind turbines.

Wind is everywhere and has been used for a long time to generate electricity. Technology has improved our use of wind power so that we now have better ways of converting wind into electric power. Windmills, which have been around for centuries, can now be used for home energy. Many people don't realize it but wind turbines come in all shapes and sizes. More and more you can see wind turbines in the local community attached to rooftops or poles. They are small, compact, and even attractive which is why several local businesses have converted to wind power for their electricity needs.

If you are considering installing your own turbine you should know that if you choose to buy one it can cost upwards of $600, and in many cases, even as much as $12,000. At this price it could take years to realize a return on your investment. However, you can easily build your own household wind turbine in just a few days for far less, and still realize the same level of savings.

More and more homeowners have decided to build a wind turbine. It is far easier than you might have imagined. The supplies you need to build a wind turbine can be found in any hardware store and will cost about $200, and the whole building process won't take more than a few days. A good instruction manual with easy to follow directions will guide you every step of the way.

Since one turbine can be enough to generate almost 60% of the electricity you'll need for your home, you can start to realize significant savings. Every day your wind turbine is working means another day of savings.

So if you've been thinking about ways to cut your utility bill and are intrigued by the idea of using energy windmills to harness wind energy and save some money, you are not alone. Give it a try. You will be pleasantly surprised at how much you can save. - 32387

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DIY Solar Cells

By Donald Anthony

Environmental sustainability has become an important consideration for many modern households. One way of showing eco-awareness is by choosing renewable, non-polluting energy sources, like solar power. Evolved technology, improved manufacturing techniques and assistance in the form of government rebates has made it easier and more financially viable to purchase solar panels for your home.

What makes these panels go:

Unlike most other electricity sources, solar panels, also known as photovoltaic systems, do not rely on turbines to produce energy. This is because all their energy comes directly from the sun. Sunlight hits the silicon crystals in the panels, and the reaction that takes place converts solar energy into electrical energy.

The switch from grid to solar power:

The average household will still require some input from the local grid supply. This is because the technology used to create the panels is still relatively new. It is the case with most panels that only about 30 per cent of the light that hits them actually gets switched into electrical energy. Don't let this put you off, though. By using a combination of solar and grid power, you can still make big savings on your electricity bills. In some cases you can even earn a bit of money back!

Using grid-tie systems:

Some households will choose to cut off the mains power supply to their house and rely wholly on solar power and a battery back-up. Most, though, prefer to stay hooked up to the grid. This works out great if your panels are creating more juice than you can use in a day, as all the excess power flows out into the grid and is paid for at retail price.

On the other hand, if a cloudy day or heavy power demands at night have meant that your solar power supply is running a little low, you don't have to go without. Any power you take back from the grid will be deducted from the power you've already given. If you give more than you receive, then you can earn yourself a bit of a profit.

Tips for lowering your electricity usage:

To really experience the benefits of your new system, you should take steps to cut back on your overall power usage. Energy-efficient products like LED lights, water-saving shower heads, highly rated appliances and thermal wall or roof insulation are great ways to cut down on the amount of electricity you use. - 32387

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Alternative Energy Solutions: Isn't It Time You Took Control Of Your Own Renewable Energy?

By Simon Banks

Clean, Reusable Energy is at Your Fingertips!

Step outside! Renewable energy is all around you. It's in the earth in the form of geothermal energy, or electric magnetic energy. It's in the air we breathe, and in the warmth of the sun, and in the wind. Man can't create it - we can only use it - or better yet, reuse it.

Over the past two years we have seen the largest growing, single growth in awareness of renewable energy due to the high rise of energy and fuel costs. We have seen an intrinsic need for a solution in the way we use energy - and the effects that our insatiable consumption have caused on our environment.

Harnessing the power of Solar Energy as an Alternative to Fuel

The effects of the sun can be felt when we step outside after a series of cold or rainy days. Its warmth has calming effect on our nerves and a soothing feeling on our skin.

This same sun helps plants grow and turn green in a process called photosynthesis. Because of that, the plants give off life sustaining oxygen so we can breathe, while plants absorb carbon dioxide thus cleaning our air. Talk about a green and clean energy solution.

At the same time, if solar energy is harnessed just right it can be captured, converted into another form of energy and stored in the form of electricity for future use. This is how the same energy can be reusable.

The Need for Creating Clean Energy has Created Great Opportunities

For years, the renewable energy of solar power has been thought to be too expensive for the average homeowner to take advantage of its benefits. However, as technology has changed over the years and need increases, pricing has also changed to make it affordable - and for some, even profitable.

The government has sweetened the deal even more. There are now more energy initiatives and federal tax benefits to help you make the shift to clean energy - and solar power is leading the way. What a great opportunity.

Solar Energy Resource Guide Makes Doing it Yourself Easy

How much do you value your time? If you could find a single source of information that could save you hours of time, and countless hours again, trying to decipher all the variable alternative energy sources - that would be valuable. You could get on the road to your own energy independence quicker and more efficiently. - 32387

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Wind Turbines-The Energy Source Of The Future

By Jake Zertosky

Wind turbines are quickly becoming the energy source of the future. By using the power of wind, these machines promise clean energy sources by using sustainable products. The wind will always be sustainable; it will always be available! These machines rotate and use what is known as 'kinetic' energy from the wind. The energy is converted into 'mechanical' energy. The energy produced from wind turbines is easily transformed into electricity. Sometimes wind turbines are known as 'wind' generators, 'wind' energy converters or 'wind' power machines.

Two types of turbines exist today:Wind turbines which rotate with main machinery (electrical generator unit and rotor shaft) on the top of a tower are called: horizontal axis turbines. These turbines need to be faced towards a strong, forceful wind in order to have their energy output maximized. Typically if the wind turbine is small, only one vane powers the unit.

Horizontal axis or vertical axis wind turbines are available:If the wind turbines' components rotate on the upper portion of a tower with a rotor shaft and an electrical generator, these are horizontal axis. Horizontal axis turbines need to be faced towards the wind. If the turbines are smaller, they will customarily have only one wind 'vane'. Larger units have wind 'sensors' and what are called 'servo motors'. Any horizontal axis turbine has a gearbox. These gear boxes make the blades' rotation faster. A better energy source for the electrical generator will result.

Customarily a tower will have 'turbulence' as the force at its back. Then the turbines are generally pointed 'upwind' of any tower. To prevent the wind turbine blades from being pushed to the tower by forceful winds, the blades are manufactured rigidly. The blades are also positioned a larger distance at the front of the tower. They are also often tilted into the wind and forward to a degree.

In spite of the turbulence problem, 'downwind' machinery has been build. This machinery doesn't require more mechanisms for ensuring that they remain in line with the wind. Often blades will bend in high winds; this will reduce their wind 'resistance' Any repetitive turbulence can facilitate turbine failure.

If a turbine has a vertical axis, the blades are arranged in a vertical manner to the rotor shafts. Good energy is still produced by the vertical turbines even if the blades are pointed into the winds' direction. When the direction of the wind is altered, this machine still will produce electricity and other energy. So there are a lot of advantages to the vertical axis turbines.

These vertical turbines have the parts positioned closer to the ground. These important parts are the generator and the gearbox. So it isn't imperative for the turbine to be supported by the tower. Maintaining this turbine is easy but being aware of any pulsing movements which can cause wear and tear.

To put these types of wind turbines on towers is difficult. It is best that vertical axis machinery is put closer to the ground and mounted nearer the base. The best locations would be a structure's roof top or on a ground level. If you maintain these turbines well as guard against turbulence, your wind turbine will reward you with years of energy savings!Not to mention the benefit of supply environmentally friendly energy. - 32387

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The Use Of Wind Turbines In Residential Applications

By Manuel Vintagoli

It's nothing new to use natural resources to produce the energy we need. A few examples of this are hydroelectric power, solar power, and steam power. With increased concerns of global warming, however, everyone is looking for sources of truly clean energy. Wind power is under close scrutiny for this very reason. The power of the wind has been harnessed for many decades by the use of windmills. In modern days you will find wind harnessed by wind turbines in large-scale wind farms.

But can the individual homeowner get in on this trend? Whether or not a wind turbine is right for you depends on your circumstances. Like solar power, wind turbines are easier to implement on a large scale than a smaller, residential scale. It took may years of research and development to make solar panels realistic for homeowners. Wind turbines are on the same path of development.

So how do you know if it's right for you? First, it's good to get a basic understanding of how this technology works. A windmill and a wind turbine work on the same principal, but are slightly different in the end. The blades of a windmill turn a shaft that operates something directly, typically a water pump. A wind turbine, on the other hand, converts that wind energy into electrical energy. The wind turns the blades, which turn a shaft, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity. The electricity can then be used for various applications. In concept it's really just a wind-powered generator.

There are definitely advantages to using a wind turbine. You get very clean energy from an endlessly renewable resource. This is not only great for the environment, but it means you will have no power bills and could live off the grid! Plus, you may be able to sell excess energy back to the power company and make some money!

There are some considerable challenges to face, however. The availability of good-quality residential wind turbines is limited. Only a few companies sell them. You will need to make sure any power you want to sell back to the electric company can be accepted by them. There may be zoning restrictions.

In addition, you need to research local wind charts to be sure you have enough, consistent wind in your area to produce the amount of energy you need. There are also requirements on how much land you need and how high the tower has to be in order to avoid interference in the wind patterns. This is why wind turbines in highly populated areas are unlikely at this time. There are also some who object to the noise and vibrations wind turbines can cause.

The fact of it is, though, if you really want to use wind energy for your home, it is possible. If you meet the necessary requirements and do your research, it really could turn out to be a viable option for you. When you consider all the clean, free energy you will produce, the investment in time and capital will give you great returns down the line.

If you are not quite ready to put in this kind of work, just wait awhile. There are such strong governmental incentives to develop technologies to support clean energy, the wind turbine for residential use may just get the attention it deserves. Already they are working on designs that are more powerful, efficient, and quieter. Soon you may see wind turbines powering homes just the way you now see solar power being used!

So keep checking out what's available and reevaluating your options. Converting to clean energy will help the planet, and that will ultimately be best for all of us. Considering a wind turbine may turn out to be an important investment in your home and in the future. - 32387

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Go Green & Save the Planet

By Martella Hudson

Many people try to tell you that green living is hard, that it is un-American, that it's useless and expensive too. None of those arguments against the green lifestyle are valid. Green living is simply the act of considering the environmental impact that a given action will have and choosing to do things that will either be environmentally neutral or environmentally beneficial. Realistically, these goals are not always possible, but most people want the Earth to be here for future generations and the best way to insure that is to make a lighter personal footprint. A benefit of the "going green" is that it often will save you money and improve your lifestyle too.

So what is a sustainable lifestyle? It's basically living more realistically, by being aware of reality. The reality is that if a beef patty in America came from a cow raised in Brazil on land made by clear-cutting the Amazon rain forest, it's not being raised sustainably. It may seem cheap, but the cost is hidden by governments and tax policies that encourage this destruction of the eco-system. Your power to stop this is to realize the reality of it, and not eat that particular hamburger. Fortunately, if you have a computer and a connection to the internet, finding out about this reality is easy. You can live in beautiful house, have electronic gizmos, wear fine clothes and drive a fancy car and you can do all this while living green. You just have to be aware of how something was made and what happens when you throw it away.

Making the environmentally friendly choices doesn't have to limit you any any way. You just adjust your thinking about the production, use and ultimate destruction of the products you buy. Buy a great car, but try to coax an extra mile or two per gallon out of it. Make sure your doors and windows are sealed to keep in the heat or air-conditioning. Buy locally grown produce if possible and think about how pesticides and herbicides aren't good for living things, including you and your family. Can something be recycled and not just thrown away? Most communities have a recycling program of some sort, use it. Living sustainably is not hard, it's just living with awareness of the impact of your choices.

As noted previously, part of sustainable living is recognizing how you're using the Earth's natural resources and vowing to reduce your pollution and use. Locally this means not dumping toxins (like oil, paint thinner, herbicides, pesticides) into streams or into storm drains. Don't fire up your fireplace with wet, smoky wood, and use a pellet stove if possible. Buy electricity from "green" sources if you can afford it. Conserve water. Buy a low flow shower head. Turn your water heater thermostat down to 120 or lower. Heat your house to 68 - 70 degrees (F) and cool it to 78 - 75 degrees. The list of easy ways to reduce your personal use of natural resources is endless and you will live just as comfortably as you do now. Not everyone can afford to do everything (or is willing to), but by being a responsible citizen of your community, and the world, you will be helping and that's what we all need to do.

So what's next in your quest for sustainable living? Education. Start going to blogs and forums. Read newspapers and articles. Keep learning and thinking about how you can do your part. If every month you can add one little thing you do that promotes sustainability, you will make a huge difference in our world. Thanks for caring - 32387

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The Causes Of Land Pollution

By Eric Gove

Imagine the next time you join a discussion about the causes of land pollution. When you start sharing the fascinating the land pollution facts below, your friends will be absolutely amazed. Global warming is a global problem that requires a global solution and California is proof that subnational governments can make a difference. I look forward to continue working with our partners in the U.S. Global warming is not possible to defend because there hasn't been nearly enough data collected on temperature trends on the planet. We would require thousands of year's worth of examination before we could make any kind of statistically meaningful predictions on future climate trends.

Everything living has a need for clean, breathable air, from humans and animals, to plants and trees. These needs make fighting air pollution a major priority for everyone, to help heal and protect our planet and future. Everything beyond that is about money and economics, don't environment and the atmosphere. The reason is that once you cap emissions, the right to emit becomes a valuable thing.

So far, we've uncovered some interesting facts about the causes of land pollution. You may decide that the following information is even more interesting.

Groundwater's quantity is far from the only concern, however; its quality is also under constant assault from a variety of sources. Natural poisoning of groundwater has long been known to occur around the world, as underground deposits of arsenic, heavy metals or even radon can seep into an aquifer and contaminate its contents. Groundwater contamination has happened in some places, ruining wells and even blowing up whole houses. It sounds like technological improvements are on the way but even then there are likely to be complications.

Carbon dioxide emission levels are not affected by the Zemission technology, but as with other types of combustion, use of biofuels can make the process carbon neutral. Carbon taxes are being put on gasoline up to $15 per gallon in some developed countries. There is still imbalance with this since worldwide subsidy to fossil is still over 700 billion while insignificant to renewables, (we (the world) have to pay the real cost of fossil, and I mean the health, environmental and climate change costs).

Humans may be directly affected as well: recent studies have suggested a connection between the use of electric lights at night and an increased risk of breast cancer. Even relatively small amounts of light reaching the eyes during sleep can throw off natural circadian rhythms, altering the body's production of the sleep hormone melatonin and potentially leading to a variety of health problems. Humans are said to have started off a primitive being commonly better known as the "Early Man". From then on, the human race has been responsible for and witness to a plethora of advances and development.

Now you can understand why there's a growing interest in land pollution debates. When people start looking for more information about the causes of land pollution, you'll be in a position to meet their needs. - 32387

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Wind Turbines Can Save Your World And Finances

By Manuel Vintagoli

You can see wind turbines for miles on end if you travel from Palm Springs and Los Angeles, California. They were the brain child of the then California Governor Gerry Brown. Many thought he was off his rocker but he thought the whole state would someday use wind turbines for their primary source of electrical power. It has not turned out that way but he had a good idea you can take advantage of. And remember the wind mill has been one of the oldest form of power generation known to man.

But today years later the wind turbines are still there and still providing energy. Although their power is not as vast as Brown may have predicted. In this day of threats of global warming and going green to save the environment it is a question why there are not more wind turbines providing more power; perhaps there are not companies that came make a lot of money off wind turbines so they are not as developed as they should be.

You can take advantage of this technology on your property if you have the right system in place. You need a tall tower and a wiring system in place in your home or business to use the kinetic energy collected by the turbine.

You will of course want to have a local power utility in effect also because you cannot count on the constant wind needed to drive the wind turbine. As the wind grows you need less utility power but as it decreases of course you will be buying your power like before from the electric company.

But if your wind turbine produces more power than you need then you are actually selling the extra power to the power company. You should have an average of a ten mile per hour wind in your area if you expect for this to make economic sense given the price to install the wind turbine system. The residential wind turbine is not very noisy. It is the same as a washing machine.

And it does not interfere with television reception. But you are looking at a tower of about one hundred feet when you install a wind turbine on your property. You will have to check with your local zoning laws to see if this is allowed in your area. You can expect to pay anywhere from five thousand to twenty five thousand dollars to have a wind turbine installed depending on the size and the manufacturer you contract with.

Expect to pay a yearly maintenance fee. But in fifteen years average your investment, the money you pay for installation and maintenance, will pay for itself. You will have free electrical power from then on out. If you are expecting to retire where you are now living this could be a prudent investment because you will not have to pay for bill increases over the years.

When you are ready to look into installing a wind turbine you can save money by installing it yourself. Or if you can deal with a company that does all the work and then offers a maintenance plan. - 32387

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Conserve Money With A Solar Water Heater

By Manuel Vintagoli

If your electric or gas bill is too high due to the cost of keeping water hot, why not install a solar water heater and have free hot water. In many locations solar water heating systems can provide seventy percent or more of the water needed for the home.

There are a couple of designs of water heaters that depend on the sun and both work well, especially in warmer climates. A passive solar tank is simply a black tank that is installed on the roof that allows the water to be warmed by the sun. An active solar water heater will have collector panels on the roof and these collector panels are connected to the cold water supply and the storage tank in the home.

With the passive solar water heater, the tank is black as this allows for the most heat to be absorbed from the sun. The amount of water in the tank is controlled by a float mechanism which regulates the amount of water in the tank. Heated water flows into the home using gravity pressure. As the hot water is emptied from the tank, it is replenished using cold water from the supply line.

Since the solar heating tank can be very heavy when filled with water, the roof may need to be strengthened to support its weight. Solar collector panels however are light and will not require any additional support.

Passive heating tanks are only appropriate for homes in warmer climates.

The active solar heater may simply be a pre-heater where cold water passes through the collector on the way to a normal gas or electric water heater in the home or it may have a small pump that circulates the water from the tank through the collector panels to keep it at the right temperature. In either case, the secondary heat source will come on if the solar collector is unable to keep the water at the correct temperature. Most solar collector panels are 4 feet by 8 feet or 4 feet by 10 feet and painted black inside with a clear cover.

Active systems require that the collector panels be faced in such a direction that they get the largest amount of heat gain. Ideally, they are placed on a flat roof, however if the roof is sloped, they should be on the southerly facing roof.

You will have special instructions for protecting your system any time there is the danger of a freeze. Not following these instructions can cause major damage to your water heating system.

If you live in a climate where the chance of freezing occurs many times during the winter, an active solar heating system that uses a heat transfer solution is a better choice. This system will use collector panels just like the other active systems; however instead of water flowing through the tubes, an antifreeze solution is used. In the storage tank, there is a heat exchanger that allows the heat collected in the solar collectors to heat the water. The cooled heat transfer solution is then returned to the collector to heat again. - 32387

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A Small Wind Turbine to Power Your Home

By Don Danielson

Although energy prices fluctuate wildly, recently we have seen a moderation in some of the costs. However, despite the moderation, a good number of homeowners are still looking for ways to save more money on their electric bills as well as helping to save the planet.

One way for you to accomplish both of these goals is by building a DIY wind turbine. With todays alternative energy technology available to the average homeowner, it is possible to build a home sized turbine inexpensively which can supply up to 60% of your home energy your needs. Of course all of this depends on how much wind you get.

One of the most popular styles of home windmills is a vertical windmill which mounts on the end of tall pole anchored in the backyard. You can also build a rooftop style turbine, which in some cases can be quite decorative and easy on the eyes. These energy efficient wind generators are far different from the traditional windmill.

A lot of people think that it can be far too expensive to use a wind powered turbine for the home. If you're planning on buying one, this may be true. However, you can easily build a turbine that will work just as well as the ones you can buy; yet you may only spend $200 for the entire project.

You can find all the parts you need can at any hardware store. It should only take you several hours, or one day, at most to build your turbine. Whether you are looking to build a windmill style turbine or a vertical style turbine, you can simply follow the same set of building plans.

A small home turbine can save you about 80% on your utility bills but it won't provide all the energy your home needs. But how much energy your turbine can provide will depend on how many obstacles block the wind from your turbine as well as how much wind you get where you live. The size and number of blades is also important.

Is building your own homemade wind power turbine something you can or should do? Get your hands on additional information and then make your decision. - 32387

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Energy Saving Lamps: Satisfactory Light With Minimal Consumption Of Electricity

By Jeremy Pabloccis

Increasingly, government regulations are recognizing the importance of conserving energy in order to make better use of the resources available on Planet Earth. Even small savings can add up when practiced by many people. For example, the European Commission recently endorsed a plan to phase out incandescent lamps by the year 2012. The hot bulbs will be replaced by energy saving lamps designed to provide cool light at a lower operating cost.

Incandescent Lights

Although the standard light bulb has been the norm for more than one hundred years, it is no secret that they are inefficient when it comes to energy consumption. Standard bulbs are made of a clear or frosted globe with a partial vacuum inside. The base of the lamp has a very thin filament or metal wire through which electricity is passed. The filament quickly glows red and then white hot. In the process it gives off both heat and light. Unfortunately only ten percent of the energy is converted into light. The rest is released as heat, as anyone who has tried to touch a light bulb is aware.

Fluorescent Lights

A fluorescent bulb saves energy because is constructed in an entirely different way than an incandescent lamp. No heat is produced and wasted with a fluorescent bulb. The energy -saving fluorescent lamp has three main parts: the base that attaches the power supply, the electronic circuit that includes a small transformer, and the glass bulb containing a small amount of mercury.

Fluorescent lamps work by generating moving atoms, thanks to the power circuit. The excited electrons that result enter the glass tubes and collide with atoms of mercury. The energy from the collision with mercury atoms is released as ultraviolet light. The inside of the glass tubes is coated with phosphor. When the UV light strikes the phosphor, it is converted into light within the visible range.

By using fluorescent bulbs, you get a usage curve of about 1000%. Energy consumption required to operate one of these lamps is only about twenty percent of that used by a standard bulb. Using standard bulbs releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, almost a ton more than released over the lifetime of a fluorescent lamp.

LED Technology

More recently, technology in the manufacture of light bulbs operated by a light-emitting diode (LED) has blossomed. An LED acts much like a standard lamp, but it uses a stream of electrons as the source of light, rather than using a metal filament. As with fluorescent lights, LED lights are cool and thus do not create heat as well as light. LED lights are very long-lived. Imagine not needing to replace a string of Christmas lights for an entire lifetime. At present, LED lights come in many colors. They cost more to manufacture, but energy consumption will be reduced.

Applications

Lamps are used to brighten your home, to provide lighting and warnings in traffic, to decorate homes and businesses during the holiday season and to advertise goods and services in outdoor settings. The information and beautification produced by the use of electric lights is undeniable. Technology now allows for the continuation of positive characteristics gained by the use of lighting, while reducing both the cost of producing the lamps and the cost of producing the energy supply.

Even if you don't subscribe to the whole concept of global warming, it just makes good sense to purchase and use energy saving lamps to light your home. You won't need to replace bulbs as often and the cost to operate the lights will show you savings on your energy bill. - 32387

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